Consequentialism And Deontology Will Be Critically Discussed Philosophy Essay

Consequentialism And Deontology Will Be Critically Discussed Philosophy Essay Consequentialism and deontology will be critically discussed on their impact on psychological research. The following areas will be discussed on how the ethical theories link with the BPS (British Psychological Society) guidelines. How current studies have impacted on both philosophical ideas and the BPS ethical guidelines. Additionally, it will conclude that a mixture of both theories is more morally and ethically valid. The deontological theory has impacted on psychological research as it argues that human beings are equal so act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law (Kant, 1985 p. 422). This is similar to the BPS guidelines which promote ethical behaviour (BPS, 2000). For example Milgram (1963) was slated for not being ethically valid however, there were no ethical guidelines during his era (Youngpeter, 2008). Yet, this allowed him to investigate the role of obedience and how this affects a persons moral value. In addition, how the participants were going to behave and the outcome of the study was unexpected (Russell, 2009). This supports rule-consequentialists who argue that even if there were ethical guidelines in some cases breaking some rules might be beneficial overall, rather than a world where individuals decide whether some rules should be kept or not (Eggeston, 2007). The impact of the consequentialism theory would argue that current replications of obedience studies are not ethically valid because the participants might think they are harming another individual thus causing the individual stress (Burger, 2009). This suggest that the research was not maximising the good and supports the BPS code of conduct (2009) which claim that participants must be protected from physical and mental harm. However, replication studies of Milgram (1963) have found that, whilst societal attitudes and changes can affect behaviour, the result indicted that the same situational factors that affected obedience in Milgrams experiment is still present today (Burger 2009). This then outweighs the discomfort in the participants because it can explain the role of authority figures during World War 2 and the present day, thus the research was maximising the good. In addition, one important implication of Burgers (2009) replication study was that it did not violate any ethica l guidelines, as the research excluded people with a history of psychological or emotional problems (Burger, 2009, p.10). And the participants were debriefed at the end. Furthermore, the current research links with a consequentialist strength that pleasure is good and suffering is bad (Sinnott-Armstrong 2009). However, consequentialism has issues which surround the idea that if people lived by producing the best possible balance of good over bad then it would not be maximised because people would make miscalculations, allow their personal biases to interfere thus, it may distort their decisions (Shand, 2003). Furthermore, it was found that consequentialism is very demanding as individuals might have to abandon personal projects in order to maximise the good and to resolve issues (McNaughton and Rawling,1998). Similarly, deontology allows the consideration of a persons autonomy, which allows us to assign more weight to our own personal desires and values (Singer, 1993). Consequently, this will make sure we avoid wrongdoings therefore argues that actions are more important than the consequences (Singer, 1993). Kants argues that the moral worth of an action is not determined by its consequences because it is possible that someone does something out of a good intention but ends up bringing about bad consequences (Shand, 2003). Reicher and Haslam (2006) caused stress among the guards and prisoners which violated the ethical code of protection, thus bringing about bad consequences. However, the research provides insight into how social roles can trap us into behaving against what we believe is morally wrong (Reicher and Haslam 2011). This would relate back to a consequentialism idea, that it may be appalling to think of harming the one person but it must be equally appalling to think not of doing so and as a result allowing, the killing of many people (Singer, 1993). Thus maximising the good for the greatest number. Nevertheless, deontology argues that the right should not be defined in terms of the good, the goodness of the ultimate consequence does not guarantee the rightness of the actions which produced them (Fried, 1978, p.9). According to deontologists, it is obvious that the interests of the many does not count nor does it count equally and if they did then it would be obligatory to save all of them and harm the one (Singer, 1993). Furthermore, deontologists forbid harm and criticise consequentialism because it leaves no room for personal autonomy (Singer, 1993). In addition, critics of consequentialism would argue that it would lead an individual to do horrendous deeds, so long as they promise the best consequences (Singer, 1993, p.234), thus consequentialism would support the killing of innocent people however, they argue that the theory should not be judged on wild unlikely possibilities as it is not true to life (Shand, 2003). Although, it has been argued that it would allow and encourage the individual to contemplate more about bad deeds thus by doing this, individuals might not recognise the rights of others in consideration which ought to have restrained th em without thinking about the consequences itself (Singer, 1993). This relates back to the BPS codes, as psychologists can look back at the ethical guidelines when they find themselves in a tricky situation. In addition, in real life there are laws such as the Human Rights Act (1998) which should help individuals make morally right decisions. Deontological theories have impacted on psychological research, as they argue that we must not lie (McNaughton and Rawling, 1998). This supports the ethical considerations in the British Psychological Society which argue that we must not deceive participants about the nature of the experiment (BPS, 2000). Most psychological research deceive participants in order to find out what they are thinking. For example, self report measures use deception frequently in order to find out other factors that might affect the results. For example, one contemporary piece of research told the participants that the questionnaire was on memory and on drug abuse but they also looked at the number of mistakes they made on the questionnaire and gender differences (Rodgers et al, 2003). Another current study deceived hospital staff and results showed that experts misdiagnosed healthy patients (BBC, 2008). This suggests that deceiving participants is necessary because it can show the impact on labels and ho w they affect treatment given (Blass, 1991). Therefore, they were deceived in order to find out whether they were diagnosed correctly. These findings are important as it allows improvements in diagnostic criterias, therefore consequentialists point out that in practice most people do lie and we should break rules in certain circumstances (Shand, 2003). However, it has been argued that there is a risk of psychological harm to the participants and the violation of their autonomy because they are deceived about the true nature of the experiment (Bortolotti and Mameli, 2006). This relates back to a deontological idea on an individuals autonomy. Consequentialism looks at actions and deontological looks at what I ought to do however, further argument suggests that emphasis should be placed on the individual character which is a virtue ethic idea what sort of person should I be (Shand, 2003). Virtue ethics could impact on psychological research for example if Reicher and Haslam (2006) or Burger (2009) involved virtuous individuals then the results might differ in terms of, participants might not conform to groups or they might be more determined to withdraw. Furthermore, according to Annas (2007) argues that the idea that we have global character traits or virtues is empirically inadequate as it does not have a cross situational consistency. A further weakness of virtue ethics is that it does not provide individuals with enough guidance on what we should do but how we should be what would a virtuous person do (Doris, 1998). Additionally, as society develops, individuals might find it difficult to decide on what are the most im portant morals to develop or what type of actions are virtuous or not (Doris, 1998). It is argued that consequentialist theories achieve moral closure, as the individual acts rightly only when their actions maximise utility, whereas deontologists act may be acceptable without it being the best or possibly a good option (Singer, 1993). If both theories were grouped together then it is possible to look at both the type of action and consequence produced, whether if it is right or wrong, this would allow a individual to think and behave more ethically. In conclusion, consequentialism looks at the consequences whereas deontology places importance of the right action to be fundamental to ethics. Consequentialism links with the BPS guideline in explaining psychological research e.g. Burger (2009) and Reicher and Haslam (2006). However, they both maximised the good by giving an insight into social roles. Yet, deontology states that participants in research need to be treated equally. Deontological theories support the BPS ethical guideline e.g. deception, the participants should not be deceived however results will be affected if the participants knew what the research was about. By concentrating on consequences it misses out individual factors (virtue idea). Both theories will be more ethically valid if they were merged together.

India automobile industry Essay

Is this the worst period for the automobile industry that you’ve witnessed? The sales of petrol-fuelled cars have been declining month after month and it went unnoticed. However, diesel car sales started declining only since the last six months. Sales of petrol cars have been declining for the past two years. This is certainly the worst period, I can’t think of any period in recent history that’s been anything like this. The correction that’s happening now is of diesel-powered car sales. If you look back at the diesel car sales, it had a very rapid growth. Beginning of 2011, growth has been very high, till the end of last year. Carmakers had expanded capacity. There is now not much attraction for diesel cars with increasing fuel prices. There has been substantial cut-back in petrol car production, but the cut-back in diesel car production was seen only from last month. Analysts are talking about a huge inventory pile-up at stockyards and dealerships. Is this one of the major reasons for plant shut downs? Shut downs are happening, because there is no point producing cars which are not selling. If I have a capacity to sell 40,000 cars and the demand today in the market is for only 30,000 cars, what do I do now? I have to scale back production. I have two ways of doing it. Either I reduce production each day by 25% or work on less days and produce 25% less. It is more economical to choose the second option, to work for a fewer number of days at maximum capacity. Because this will help reduce overheads such as electricity, transport, water charges, etc. Lot of money goes into these. What companies are doing is working for a fewer number of days but at maximum capacity on those days.

Citizenship in the World, Bsa Merit Badge.

| Citizenship in the World| Counselor: Jack P. Wiiki| | | 8/26/2012| | Requirement 1) â€Å"What does Citizenship in the world mean to you, and what does it take to become one? † Citizenship in the World, meaning that one ultimately is motivated to defend and preserve human rights, and human dignity. Has an interest in an assortment of global interests, and fairness to nations other than their own and it's allies. This person would have respect for fellow human beings, regardless of race, gender, religion, or nationality, and works to protect the world from degradation.Requirement 2) â€Å"How does one become a United States citizen, and what are the rights, duties and obligations of these citizens, and two other countries? † United States: 1. Are at least 18 years old and a lawful permanent resident (â€Å"green card† holder); 2. Have resided continuously in the United States, having been lawfully admitted for permanent residence, for five years immediately prec eding the date you filed your application for naturalization, or 3. Have, after having been removed from conditional permanent resident status, based upon your marriage to a U.S. citizen, having resided in the United States for one year after the date the condition was removed; 4. Have resided continuously in the United States at all times after your application to the time and date of your admission for citizenship; 5. Have, during all periods of time referred to above, been and still are a person of good moral character; 6. Have no outstanding deportation or removal order and no pending deportation or removal proceeding; 7. Have the ability to read, write, speak, and understand simple words and phrases in English; 8.Have knowledge and understanding of the fundamentals of U. S. history and government; 9. Are attached to, and can support, the principles of the U. S. Constitution and can swear allegiance to the United States. Iran: 1. the applicant should be 18 years old. 2. Five yea rs of consecutive or alternate residence in Iran is required. 3. The applicants should have served their military service. 4. The applicants should not be convicts of any major crime or non-political offense in any country.Of course, given the revision of the nation's Penal Code and the elimination of such terms as offense and crime, Paragraph 4 of the Civil Code Article 979 should likewise be revised. It should be noted, however, that the government might refrain from granting Iranian citizenship to aliens either on account of political reasons or for the protection of national security. The admission of such applications might, therefore, require the Cabinet's approval. Switzerland: Naturalization Swiss citizenship can be acquired through what is called naturalization.To become naturalized, you need to have resided in Switzerland for at least twelve years, three of which occurred within the five years prior to the request. Time spent in Switzerland between the ages of 10 and 20 ye ars counts double. The request is to be made to the Aliens Police in the municipality of residence. From there, it will then be sent to the Federal Department of Justice and Police, who will give a principle authorization if the following conditions are met: You are integrated in the Swiss community. You are accustomed to Swiss way of life and practices.You comply with the Swiss legal system. You in no way compromise the internal or external security of Switzerland. Since Switzerland is a federal country, authorization must then be obtained from the canton and the municipality. The canton and municipality of residence can add further conditions and set the cost of acquiring citizenship before approving it. Conditions vary greatly from one region to the next. Some municipalities apply rather open policies, while others will go as far as granting nationality by means of a local population vote.Cost also varies according to municipality and canton. Requirement 3) Current Event: Syrian Civil War Excerpt from CNN â€Å"The Syrian regime, led by President Bashar al-Assad, launched a violent crackdown last year on activists demanding more economic prosperity, political freedom and civil liberties. This sparked a nationwide uprising and eventually a civil war with armed rebels, many of whom defected from the military. As of July, the conflict had claimed an estimated 17,000 lives, mostly civilians, according to the United Nations.And more than 170,000 people have fled the Middle East nation to seek refuge in neighboring countries such as Iraq, Jordan and Turkey. â€Å" Requirement 3A) â€Å"How a foreign country (France) is a global provider and it’s economy and global relations† Geography: The European portion of France, excluding islands and overseas territories is 211,209 sq miles. Natural Resources: Are limited, and most are either nearly exhausted, or very hard to obtain, Coal, Iron Ore, Bauxite, and small portions of Uranium.Climate Influence: Th e north and northwest have a temperate climate, while a combination of maritime influences, latitude and altitude produce a varied climate in the rest of Metropolitan France. In the south-east a Mediterranean climate prevails. In the west, the climate is predominantly oceanic with a high level of rainfall, mild winters and cool to warm summers, along with the very fertile soil, provides a very good growing season, and allows for the growing of many forests, and tourist attractions. Inland the climate becomes more continental with hot, stormy summers, colder winters and less rain.The climate of the Alps and other mountainous regions is mainly alpine, with the number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year and snow cover lasting for up to six months. Global Partnerships: a leading member of the International Francophone Organization (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries, and World Trade Organization. Requirement 4C) â€Å"What do the U. N and the World Court do for the world? † U. N: Is an international organization who aims for facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace.World Court: Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by sovereign states and to provide opinions on legal questions submitted to it by international agencies. Requirement 5) Previously Discussed. Requirement 6) â€Å"How is government represented abroad? And how is the U. S accredited to international organizations? † A government is recognized through embassies and consulates in all nations with which they have diplomatic relations. The United States government has been accredited to international organizations by signing into organizations and becoming an official member.They participate in the happenings of the many different organizations and do their best to help whatever cause the organization is prom oting. Requirement 7) To Be Discussed. Democratic Republic(USA)- Star Communist (North Korea, China, Vietnam)-Equal Sign Dictatorship (Cuba, Venezuela) -â€Å"No† Symbol Monarchy (Saudi Arabia, Monaco) -X Theocracy (Iran) -Sun Democratic Republic(USA)- Star Communist (North Korea, China, Vietnam)-Equal Sign Dictatorship (Cuba, Venezuela) -â€Å"No† Symbol Monarchy (Saudi Arabia, Monaco) -X Theocracy (Iran) -Sun

Adolf Hitler And The World War II Essay - 1653 Words

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